Correlation between body fat mass indices and heart rate variability in postmenopausal women with high body mass index

Background: Well known facts for the rise in blood pressure, blood glucose, and cardiovascular diseases are the body fat mass that has become a major public health issue that correspond to health problems. Activation of sympathetic nervous system is directly proportional to body fat mass that results in an autonomic impairment. Aims and Objectives: The aim of the study is to compare body fat mass indices and heart rate variability (HRV) (Frequency Domain) in high body mass index (BMI) postmenopausal women. Materials and Methods: This research was directed on 104 postmenopausal women of age group 45–60 years grouped them into two. Group 1 having normal BMI (18.50–24.99) and Group 2 having high BMI >25.00 based on Asian’s classification for BMI. Approval from the Institutional Ethical Committee was obtained before beginning the study. Short-term HRV was measured in each participant by a 5-min frequency domain analysis. Results: Unpaired t-test was used to analyze all parameters of the study (control and study group). The result showed a lower level of parasympathetic and a higher sympathetic activity in the study group when matched against the control group. Conclusion: Body fat mass indices and HRV are inversely proportional in high BMI postmenopausal women and they more likely to suffer from cardiometabolic disorders in early.

Determinants of Circulating Soluble Leptin Receptor and Free Leptin Index in Indonesian Pre-Pubertal Obese Male Children: A Preliminary Cross-Sectional Study / 대한소아소화기영양학회지

PURPOSE: This study aimed to investigate the clinical and metabolic determinants of circulating soluble leptin receptor (CSLR) and free leptin index (FLI) in pre-pubertal obese male children.METHODS: We conducted a preliminary cross-sectional study at three tertiary hospitals and one public primary school. Eighty obese male children without growth and developmental abnormalities aged 5–9 years were recruited. In these children, obesity was solely caused by excessive food intake, and not by acute illness, medications, endocrine abnormalities, or any syndrome. Body mass index (BMI), body fat mass, carbohydrate intake, fat intake, high density lipoprotein cholesterol level, low density lipoprotein cholesterol level, triglyceride level, and Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance are the potential determinants for leptin regulation, which is represented by CSLR level and FLI.RESULTS: Carbohydrate was the main source of energy. BMI and body fat mass had negative weak correlation with CSLR and positive weak correlation with FLI. Furthermore, carbohydrate intake was found to be independently associated with CSLR based on the results of the multiple linear regression analysis. Following an increase in carbohydrate intake, CSLR level decreased progressively without any negative peak.CONCLUSION: Leptin regulation in prepubertal obese male children is associated with body composition and dietary intake. Carbohydrate intake is useful for predicting CSLR. Lipid profiles and insulin resistance are not related to both CSLR and FLI. Treatment and prevention of leptin resistance in obese children should focus on reducing BMI, fat mass, and carbohydrate intake.

Relationship between liver controlled attenuation parameters and body fat mass and its distribution / 中华肝脏病杂志

Objective@#To explore the relationship between liver controlled attenuation parameters (CAP) and body fat mass and its distribution.@*Methods@#From May to December 2018, 978 adult patients visited at the fatty liver center of the Third People's Hospital of Changzhou were treated. The patient's liver controlled attenuation parameters were measured by transient elastography and the body fat mass and its distribution were measured by bioelectrical impedance technology. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was adopted to describe the correlation between liver CAP value and body mass index (BMI), body fat mass index (BFMI), trunk fat mass index (TFMI), limbs fat mass index (LFMI) and visceral fat area (VFA). Receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) and area under the curve (AUC) were used to evaluate BMI, BFMI, TFMI, LFMI and VFA to differentiate the cut-off points and efficacy of CAP for diagnosing grading of fatty liver changes in S0-1 and S2-3.@*Results@#In 653 cases of male, S0 ~ S3 accounted for 4.90%, 3.37%, 22.36% and 69.37%, respectively, and in 325 cases of females, S0 ~ S3 accounted for 7.38%, 6.46%, 13.23% and 72.92%, respectively. Female patients had more visceral, trunk and limbs fat than male (P < 0.01). Body mass, body fat mass, body fat percentage, BMI, BFMI, TFMI, LFMI, and VFA were increased in male and female patients with increasing liver fat grade (P < 0.01). CAP values ​​of male and female patients were positively correlated with BMI, BFMI, TFMI, LFMI and VFA. Percentage of body fat mass increased with increasing liver fat grade (male: F = 13.42, P < 0.001; female: F = 3.22, P = 0.023); while limb fat mass percentage did not increase with liver fat grade (Male: F = 1.13, P = 0.34; female: F = 1.05, P = 0.37). Hepatic steatosis grading (S0 ~ 1 or S2 ~ 3) diagnosed with CAP were distinguished through BMI, BFMI, TFMI, LFMI and VFA. AUC was 0.80 ~ 0.82 in males (P < 0.01), and 0.75 ~ 0.78 in females (P < 0.01).@*Conclusion@#The liver CAP value is positively correlated with the body's limbs, trunk and visceral fat, and has a strong correlation with trunk and visceral fat. BMI, BFMI, TFMI, LFMI and VFA up to some extent can identify the CAP diagnosis of grading of fatty liver changes in S0-1 and S2-3.

Relación entre composición corporal y concentración de leptina sérica en mujeres estudiantes de nivel superior / Relationship between body composition and blood leptin concentration in female college students

El objetivo del presente trabajo fué conocer la relación y la fuerza de asociación que existe entre composición corporal y la concentración sérica de leptina en una población de mujeres. Se evaluaron 60 mujeres de entre 18 y 21 años de la Benemérita y Centenaria Escuela Normal del Estado de San Luis Potosí (BECENE). Se realizaron mediciones de: perímetro de cintura y cadera, talla, peso, porcentaje de masa grasa y niveles plasmáticos de: glucosa, colesterol total, triglicéridos, HDL, LDL, leptina e insulina. El procesamiento de datos se realizó en IBM SPSS Statistics 20.0 (IBM Corp.), se utilizó estadística descriptiva, regresión lineal y regresión logística binomial, así como diferencia de medianas con una confiabilidad al 95%. La población estudiada presentó valores normales de glucemia y presión arterial media, sin embargo también se observó un 3% con hipercolesterolemia total; un 29,9% con sobrepeso/ obesidad; y un 26% con resistencia a insulina (HOMA2 IR mayor a 1.4). La mediana de leptina sérica fue de 6,49 ng/ml, donde un 30% de las mujeres se encontraban en condiciones de hiperleptinemia. Se observó una correlación significativa entre los niveles séricos de leptina y porcentaje de masa grasa, IMC, insulina sérica e índice HOMA2-IR. Por regresión logística binomial se observó que el IMC elevado aumenta la probabilidad de padecer hiperleptinemia 7,5 veces, y los niveles altos de masa grasa aumentan el riesgo 6,2 veces. El mejor predictor de hiperleptinemia fue el IMC(AU)

Sixty women aged between 18 and 21 from the Benemérita y Centenaria Escuela Normal del Estado de San Luis Potosí (BECENE) were evaluated. Body mass index, fat mass percentage, waist-hip ratio and several plasma components were analyzed: glucose, total colesterol, free tryglycerides, HDL, LDL, insulin and leptin. Data was processed by SPSS Statistics 20,0 software using descriptive statistics, binomial logistic regression with a confidence value of 95%. The population showed normal glycemic and blood pressure values, whereas a 29,9% of women were overweight/obese, 3% showed hypercholesterolemia and 29,9% showed insulin resistance (HOMA2 IR over 1.4). The median for blood leptin was 6.49 ng/ml, and 30% of women were hyperleptinemic. A positive and significant correlation was observed between blood leptin values and BMI, % fat mass, blood insulin and HOMA2-IR index. The odds ratio analyzed for BMI, showed that overweight and obesity increase 7,5 times the risk of hyperleptinemia. On the other hand, high levels of fat mass, increase by 6,2 times the risk of hyperleptinemia. So far, the best predictor for hyperleptinema is BMI(AU)

Masa grasa corporal en escolares y adolescentes en la zona de la Tamborada Cochabamba, Bolivia / Mass body fat in schoolchildren and adolescents in the area of the Tamborada Cochabamba, Bolivia

Objetivo: determinar la proporción de masa grasa corporal cuantificada con pliegues subcutáneos en escolares y adolescentes de la zona de Tamborada de Cochabamba. Metodos: estudio descriptivo y transversal. Se evaluaron a 158 escolares y adolescentes de ambos sexos entre 7 a 17 años de edad, que asisten a guarderías y centros de apoyo escolar dependientes del Centro de Desarrollo Integral (CDI). Se evaluó el IMC según edad y sexo. Para el estudio de la distribución grasa corporal, se midieron los cuatro pliegues cutáneos, pliegue tricipital, bicipital, subescapular y suprailíaco, a partir de las ecuaciones de regresión múltiple de Brook y Siri, se obtuvo la densidad y con ello el volumen total de grasa corporal de cada sujeto. Resultados: para el indicador antropométrico IMC no se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas para la variable sexo (p = 0,165). la masa grasa corporal en porcentaje (%); en el género masculino se puede observar que ésta aumenta progresivamente hasta los 12 años y posteriormente disminuye también progresivamente. En el caso de las mujeres desde el inicio se evidencia un ascenso hasta los 13 años, para luego descender en el porcentaje de masa grasa corporal. la asociación entre los valores del porcentaje de grasa corporal y las cifras del índice de masa corporal, hay una correlación muy alta entre ambas variables (r = 0,861; p < 0,001). Discusión y Conclusión: estos datos indican que el índice de masa corporal se incrementa entre los sujetos y las cifras de porcentaje de grasa mostraron un incremento en modo paralelo.

Objective: to determine the proportion of body fat mass quantified with subcutaneous folds in school children and adolescents in the area of "La Tamborada", Cochabamba. Methods: it is a descriptive and transversal study. A total of 158 schoolchildren and adolescents from both sexes and between 7 and 17 years of age that attend day care centers and school support centers under the Integral Development Center (CDI) were evaluated. BMI was assessed by age and sex. For the study of the body fat distribution, the four skinfolds, triceps, bicipital, subscapular and suprailiac fold were measured from Brook's and Siri multiple regression equations, the density was obtained and thus the total volume of Body fat of each subject. Results: for the anthropometric indicator BMI no statistically significant differences were found for the gender variable (p = 0.165). Body fat mass in percentage (%); in the masculine gender it is possible to be observed that this increases progressively until the 12 years and later also diminishes progressively. In the case of women from the beginning, an ascent up to the age of 13 is evident, in order to decrease the percentage of body fat. The association between body fat percentage values and body mass index values, there is a very high correlation between both variables (r = 0.861, p <0.001). Discussion and Conclusion: these data indicate that body mass index is increased between subjects and fat percentage figures showed an increase in parallel mode.

Estimating Negative Effect of Abdominal Obesity on Mildly Decreased Kidney Function Using a Novel Index of Body-Fat Distribution

Abdominal obesity is a major risk factor of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Conventional obesity-related indicators, included body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and conicity index (C-index), have some limitations. We examined the usefulness of trunk/body fat mass ratio (T/Br) to predict negative effect of abnormal fat distribution on excretory kidney function. We analyzed anthropometric, biochemical and densitometric data from a nation-wide, population-based, case-control study (the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [KNHANES] IV and V). A total of 11,319 participants were divided into 2 groups according to estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR, mL·min⁻¹·1.73 m⁻²) as follows: Group I (n = 7,980), eGFR ≥ 90 and ≤ 120; and group II (n = 3,339), eGFR ≥ 60 and < 90. Linear regression analysis revealed that T/Br was closely related to eGFR (β = −0.3173, P < 0.001), and the correlation remained significant after adjustment for age, gender, BMI, WC, C-index, systolic blood pressure (BP), hemoglobin, and smoking amount (β = −0.0987, P < 0.001). Logistic regression analysis showed that T/Br (odds ratio [OR] = 1.046; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.039–1.054) was significantly associated with early decline of kidney function, and adjustment for age, gender, BMI, C-index, systolic BP, hemoglobin, serum glucose level, high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol, and smoking amount did not reduce the association (OR = 1.020; 95% CI = 1.007–1.033). T/Br is useful in estimating the negative impact of abdominal obesity on the kidney function.

Avaliação e acompanhamento nutricional em idosos de uma instituição de longa permanência / Assessment, evaluation and nutrition monitoring in older people living in a rest home

Idosos institucionalizados apresentam um risco aumentado de alteração do estado nutricional. Sendo assim, são necessários indicadores sensíveis para identificação da alteração do estado nutricional. O objetivo deste estudo é avaliar indicadores para análise do estado nutricional de idosos institucionalizados, em um período de três meses, por meio de exames bioquímicos e antropométricos. Foram selecionados 81 voluntários, com 78 ± 10 anos, sendo 53% do sexo feminino. Os dados antropométricos evidenciaram que as variáveisíndice de massa corporal, peso, massa gorda e ângulo de fase dos idosos institucionalizados diminuíram em três meses com diferença significativa no período. Dentre todos os exames bioquímicos e antropométricos, as variáveis índice de massa corporal, peso, massa gorda, ângulo de fase e lipidograma foram os indicadores da avaliação nutricional que identificaram alterações precoces e riscos nutricionais dos idosos institucionalizados no período de três meses. Vale ressaltar que indicadores nutricionais avaliados precocemente podem evitar os riscos nutricionais de idosos institucionalizados.

Institutionalized elderly have an increased risk of changes in nutritional status, therefore sensitive parameters are necessary for the identification of changes in nutritional status. The aim of this study was to evaluate parameters for analysis of the nutritional status of institutionalized elderly in a period of three months by means of biochemical and anthropometric measurements. Eighty one volunteers were selected, with 78 ± 10 years old and 53% female. Anthropometric data showed that the variables body mass index, weight, fat mass, and phase angle of the institutionalized elderly in three months decreased with significant difference between the assessments. Among all the biochemical and anthropometric measurements, body mass index, weight, fat mass, phase angle and blood fat were the indicators of nutritional assessment that identified early changes and nutritional risks of institutionalized elderly in three months. It is noteworthy that the early evaluation of nutritional indicators can prevent nutritional risk among elderly in living in rest homes.

Estimation of Body Fat Mass from Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis in Indian Adults Aged 23 to 81 Years: A Comparison with Dual Energy Xray Absorptiometry.

The purpose of this study was to validate a bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) equation for prediction of body fat mass (FM) against dual energy Xray absorptiometry (DXA) in healthy Indian adults with large variations in body mass index and age. Healthy subjects (28 males and 85 females) were investigated by two methods: FM was measured by a dual energy Xray absorptiometry and segmental bioelectrical parameters at various frequencies were measured by a commercial segmental multifrequency BIA instrument. Total body parameters were derived from segmental bioelectrical parameters. As correlation was high and prediction error was low, a single equation was developed for FM as follows: FM = 15.45 + [0.0074 × (Rbody250)] - (3.89 × sex); men = 1, women = 0) + (0.844 × w) - [6938 × (h2/Zbody50)] - (22.22 × h) + [3 × (Xbody250 - Xbody5)/age)] + [1.53 × (Φbody5)] - [0.126 × (Xbody50/h)]. Fat mass predicted with dual energy Xray absorptiometry was 28.11 ± 9.30 kg. BIApredicted FM was 28.12 ± 9.11 kg (R = 0.9794, adjusted R2 = 0.9561, standard error of estimate = 1.95 kg, total error = 1.87 kg). In conclusion, the new developed BIA equation was valid for prediction of FM in healthy subjects aged 23 to 81 years with body mass indices between 15.62 and 39.98 kg.m-2. Inclusion of reactance in the kg.m-2 single prediction equation appeared to be essential for use of BIA equation in adults with large variations in body mass and age.

Body composition in Egyptian Turner syndrome girls.

OBJECTIVE: This cross-sectional study was undertaken to construct the new body fat % curve and provide body composition reference data for adolescent girls with Turner syndrome (TS). They diagnosed cytogenetically by blood karyotyping and not treated with growth hormone (GH). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study included 70 TS girls from age 13 years to age 17 years. Body composition was measured by bioelectrical impedance. Smoothed centile charts were derived by using the least mean square (LMS) method. RESULTS: The new body fat curves reflect the increase of body fat mass (FM) from age 13 years to age 17 years. Body FM % of Egyptian TS girls was lower when compared with age-matched American untreated TS girls. CONCLUSION: This study presents the new body fat curves and reference values of body composition for untreated Egyptian TS adolescent girls. The present charts can be used for direct assessment of body FM % for Egyptian TS girls and evaluation for cases on GH treatment or other growth promoting therapy.

Optimal variables and corresponding cut-off points for identification of cardiovascular risk factors clustering among elderly males / 上海第二医科大学学报

Objective To explore the optimal cut-off points of body mass index(BMI),percentage of body fat(PBF) and body fat mass index(BFMI) for identification of cardiovascular risk factors clustering among elderly males. MethodsThe data of physical examinations from 1 052 Shanghai elderly males in 2007 were collected.The relationship between cardiovascular risk factors clustering and different strata of BMI,PBF and BFMI was analyzed.Receiver Operator Characteristic(ROC) curve analysis was employed to determine the optimal cut-points for identification of cardiovascular risk factors clustering,and area under curve(AUC) was worked out.The population attributable risk proportion(PARP) of risk factors clustering was calculated. Results Odds ratios of risk factors clustering tended to increase with BMI,PBF and BFMI.BMI≥24 kg/m2,PBF≥21% and BFMI≥5 kg/m2 were the cut-off points that had approximate sensitivity and specificity,and/or had the shortest distance in ROC curve.AUC of all the three indexes was larger than 0.5.Analysis of PARP indicated that BMI under 24 kg/m2,PBF under 21% and BFMI under 5 kg/m2 could prevent 27.1%,37.44% and 36.63% risk factors clustering,respectively. Conclusion BMI≥24 kg/m2,PBF≥21% and BFMI≥5 kg/m2 can well reflect the cardiovascular risk factors clustering among elderly males.

Age Associated Changes in Body Mass Index and Body Fat Distribution

BACKGROUND: Body mass index is currently applied as the diagnostic standard of overweight and obesity, regardless of age. Percentage body fat ratio applies separate standards among different sex, but does not have separate standards for different age groups. Since body mass index and percentage body fat may differ according to age, we conducted this study to see if a separate standard for overweight and obesity is indeed necessary for different age groups. METHODS: We selected 2,190 subjects, who were the 10 percent picked randomly by computer, among 21,921 clients who had visited the St. Mary's Hospital's health promotion center in Seoul. Those diagnosed with diabetes, thyroid disease, renal failure, and tuberculosis were excluded, leaving 1,939 over the age of 20, as final subjects. Anthropometric measurements were done using electronic scales and height meters, while body composition was measured with a multi-frequency bioelectric impedance analysis (Inbody 3.0 Biospace, Seoul). The results of this study were shown in mean and standard deviation, and mean values according to ages were compared by Ancova test. RESULTS: In the case of adult men, percentage body fat increased with age. This was observed especially with subjects over 30 compared to subjects in their 20s, although not proven to be statistically significant. A decrease in fat free mass rather than increase in body fat mass was noted with aging. With adult women, percentage body fat increased markedly with subjects over 50, mainly due to increased body fat mass rather than decreased fat free mass. Subjects exceeding a body mass index of 25, which is the standard limit of body mass index for obesity, was 60th percentile for adult men, and 70~80th percentile for adult women. Percentage body fat in this case was 22.54% for men and 31.99~33.46% for women. CONCLUSION: Our study indicates that both men and women show changes in body mass index and fat free mass with aging. Hence, there are limitations to applying a universal standard for body mass index, regardless of age. We suggest that further studies on standards for adult obesity should be conducted based on specific Korean epidemiologic data.

Comparison of Body Components and Mineral Mass between Women with Osteoporosis and Non-osteoporosis Postmenopausal Women

BACKGROUND: There has been a controversy on whether the association between weight and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women was the influence of body fat component or lean body mass. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between body composition and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. METHODS: The subjects were 41 postmenopausal women older than 50 years old whose bone mineral density (BMD) and body composition were assessed using DEXA and bioelectrical impedence. Aspects of socioeconomic status, postmenopausal period, exercise, smoking and alcohol use were checked. Osteoporosis was defined as any BMD which was 2.5 SD or more below the "young normal" adult. Non-osteoporosis was defined as all BMD above 2.5 SD below the "young normal" adult. Body composition, as continuous variables or ordinal variables, was compared between the two groups. RESULTS: The prevalence of osteoporosis was 58.5% (24/51) in subjects. The women with osteoporosis were older and had lower education level compared to the women with non-osteoporosis. There were significant differences in height (P=0.009), weight (P=0.043), protein mass (P=0.004), mineral mass (P=0.004), and fat-free mass (P=0.005) between the two groups. In contrast, fat mass, % body fat, waist-hip ratio (WHR), and body mass index were not significantly different between the two groups. As the tertile of mineral mass and fat-free mass increased, the prevalence of osteoporosis showed decreased trends. However, there was no significant trend according to fat mass tertiles. When factors of age was adjusted, osteoporosis prevalence decreased 0.7 fold with 1 kg increase in fat-free mass. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that fat-free mass rather than fat mass may be associated with BMD in postmenopausal women.

A Prospective Study on Changes of Serum Leptin and Its Expression in CAPD Patients / 대한신장학회잡지

The ob gene product leptin is thought to be an adipostatic hormone through the regulation of food intake and energy expenditure. There are many reports that serum leptin concentration was increased in CRF patients, especially CAPD patients. The causes of elevated serum leptin concentration in CRF are believed to be multifactorial. Increased body fat mass, decreased residual renal function, active inflammation and hyperinsulinemia all are suggested to influence serum leptin concentration in CAPD patients. In this study, in order to investigate the pathogenic mechanism of increased serum leptin level in CAPD patients, we observed the changes of serum leptin concentration, leptin expression in the abdominal subcutaneous fat tissue, body fat composition, residual renal function, serum insulin concentration and CRP. Thirteen patients(7 men and 6 women, mean age 53+/-14 years) were enrolled in this study. Serum leptin concentration was measured by RIA before start of CAPD(baseline data), 5 days and 1, 3 months after start of CAPD. Simultaneously, fat tissues were aspirated from the abdominal subcutaneous fat tissues for analysis of ob gene expression. Ob mRNA expression was measured by semiquantitative RT-PCR method. The changes of serum insulin concentration, C-reactive protein, residual renal function were measured. All studies were done immediately before starting CAPD, 5 days, 1 month and 3 months after starting CAPD. Total body fat was estimated by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry and abdominal visceral and parietal fat area measured by computed tomography were done at 1-3 days(baseline data), 1 month, 3 months after start of CAPD. Serum leptin concentration increased significantly as early as 5 days after start of CAPD and maintained high up to 3 months(4.3+/-2.6->8.2+/-7.6->7.4+/-6.5->10.8+/-13.8ng/mL), while leptin expression in the abdominal subcutaneous fat tissue did not change during the study period(0.24+/-0.06->0.25+/-0.08->0.20+/-0.07->0.34+/-0.21ng/mL). No significant changes of body fat composition, residual renal function and serum insulin concentration were observed during the study period. These results suggest that increase of serum leptin concentration after CAPD may be due to increase of local leptin production, especially from the peritoneum, as has also been suggested by several reports of relatively higher dialysate leptin.

Gender differences in body fat distribution of 3- to 6-year-old japanese children / 体力科学

A study was conducted to assess gender differences of body fat distribution (i. e., total body fat mass, subcutaneous fat mass, and internal fat mass) in a homogeneous group of Japanese children. Body composition was estimated in 141 boys and 139 girls (aged 3-6 yr) using bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) . All subjects were apparently healthy. Determinations of impedance were made using a four-terminal impedance analyzer (TP-95 K, Toyo Physical, Inc., Fukuoka) . The lean body mass (LBM) was calculated using the equation of Kushuner et al. (1992) and Goran et al. (1993) . Total body fat mass (TFM) was calculated as the difference between body weight and LBM. The subcutaneous fat mass (SFM) was calculated using a modification of the equation derived by Skerjl et al. (1953) . The internal fat mass (IFM) was calculated as the difference between TFM and SFM. From ages 3 through 6 years, the mean LBM increased with age in boys and girls, but showed no significant gender differences. There were also no obvious gender differences in TFM and IFM within the same age range. Percentage body fat decreased in both sexes until the age of approximately 5-yr, and then increased again slightly at 6 yr, although it showed no significant differences between the sexes. The gender-specific pattern of fat accumulation during childhood was characterized by an almost steady increase of SFM in girls. These differences were independent of gender differences in physical characteristics.